Exercises
Explore how the human immune system detects and eliminates threats. This quiz covers innate defenses, antigen presentation, B- and T-cell activation, antibody functions, complement proteins, immunological memory, vaccination, and allergic responses. Questions range from foundational concepts to the interpretation of immune-system diagrams and response graphs.
Answer the questions below and check the explanation for each answer.
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Skin and mucous membranes are part of innate immunity. They provide immediate physical and chemical barriers without recognizing a specific antigen.
Professional antigen-presenting cells display processed extracellular antigens on MHC class II, which is recognized by CD4-positive helper T cells.
Germinal centers form after B-cell activation. They are major sites of B-cell proliferation, somatic hypermutation, affinity maturation, and selection.
Under clonal selection, an antigen binds to a lymphocyte with a complementary receptor. That cell is activated and produces a clone of effector and memory cells.
Neutralizing antibodies bind viral surface structures and block attachment, receptor engagement, or membrane entry, preventing the virus from infecting susceptible cells.
The membrane attack complex, assembled from terminal complement proteins, forms pores in susceptible microbial membranes and can cause cell lysis.
Memory B cells formed during the primary response persist. On re-exposure, they rapidly proliferate and differentiate, producing a faster and often larger antibody response.
Class switching replaces the heavy-chain constant region but preserves the rearranged variable region. The antibody therefore keeps the same antigen specificity while gaining different effector functions.
Negative selection removes developing T cells that bind too strongly to self-antigens. This supports central tolerance and reduces the risk of autoimmune reactions.
The hinge region gives the antibody arms flexibility, helping both antigen-binding sites engage targets positioned at different distances or angles.
Adjuvants enhance immune responses by stimulating innate signals, improving antigen presentation, or prolonging antigen exposure. This can produce stronger and more durable immunity.
IgE binds high-affinity receptors on mast cells. Allergen-mediated cross-linking of adjacent IgE molecules triggers degranulation and the release of inflammatory mediators.
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