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Logical Reasoning Foundations: Indicator Words and Argument Signals

Capítulo 3

Estimated reading time: 7 minutes

Why Indicator Words Matter (and Why They Can Mislead)

Indicator words are common phrases that often signal where a premise or a conclusion is located in a passage. They help you quickly map the structure of reasoning, especially in longer or denser writing. However, indicator words are only clues: people use them loosely, sarcastically, or in non-argument ways (for time, explanation, storytelling, or emphasis). Your job is to treat them like a highlighter suggestion, then verify the actual premise–conclusion relationship.

Two Families of Signals

In many everyday arguments, you will see one of two signal types:

Conclusion indicators: often introduce what the speaker wants you to accept.
Premise indicators: often introduce the support offered for that conclusion.

Conclusion Indicator Words

Common conclusion indicators include:

therefore
so
thus
hence
that’s why

Examples Where They Likely Mark a Conclusion

Example 1

“The store is closed today, so we’ll have to come back tomorrow.”

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Likely conclusion: “We’ll have to come back tomorrow.”
Support: “The store is closed today.”

Example 2

“The data are incomplete; therefore, we shouldn’t publish the report yet.”

Likely conclusion: “We shouldn’t publish the report yet.”
Support: “The data are incomplete.”

Examples Where They Appear but Don’t Function as Argument Signals

Non-argument use (conversation filler)

“So, how was your weekend?”

Here, so is a transition in conversation, not a conclusion indicator.

Non-argument use (narrative sequencing)

“I missed the bus, and then I walked home, so I got some fresh air.”

This can be read as storytelling rather than an attempt to prove a point. It might contain a reason-like relation, but you must check whether the speaker is arguing or merely describing events.

Premise Indicator Words

Common premise indicators include:

because
since
given that
as shown by

Examples Where They Likely Mark a Premise

Example 1

“We should leave early because traffic is usually heavy on Fridays.”

Likely premise: “Traffic is usually heavy on Fridays.”
Claim supported: “We should leave early.”

Example 2

“Given that the deadline is tomorrow, we need to prioritize the final edits.”

Likely premise: “The deadline is tomorrow.”
Claim supported: “We need to prioritize the final edits.”

Example 3

“The medication is effective, as shown by the reduction in symptoms across the trial group.”

Likely premise: “There was a reduction in symptoms across the trial group.”
Claim supported: “The medication is effective.”

Mixed and Misleading Cases: When Premise Indicators Aren’t Premises

Some words that often introduce premises also have other common meanings. The classic example is since.

Word/Phrase	Argument-like use	Non-argument use
`since`	“Since the roads are icy, drive slowly.” (reason)	“Since 2010, the city has grown.” (time)
`because`	“We canceled because the venue flooded.” (reason)	“I’m smiling because I’m happy.” (often explanation of a feeling; may not be an argument)
`as shown by`	“The battery is failing, as shown by the rapid discharge.” (support)	“The chart is labeled, as shown by the legend.” (description of what’s on the page)

The key skill is to ask: is the speaker trying to support a claim, or merely giving background, describing, or explaining?

A Practical Method: Use Indicators, Then Verify

Step-by-Step: From Signal to Structure

Step 1: Circle potential indicators. Mark words like therefore, so, because, since, given that, as shown by.
Step 2: Tentatively label roles. If it’s a conclusion indicator, tentatively label the nearby clause as the conclusion. If it’s a premise indicator, tentatively label the nearby clause as a premise.
Step 3: Perform the “support test.” Ask: “Is the supposed premise offered to make the supposed conclusion more believable?” If yes, you likely have an argument structure. If no, it may be a non-argument use.
Step 4: Paraphrase to confirm. Rewrite in your own words using a clear template: [Premise]. Therefore, [Conclusion]. If the paraphrase sounds faithful and the support relation makes sense, your labeling is probably correct.

Paraphrase Templates You Can Use

Because [premise], [conclusion].
[Premise]. So [conclusion].
Given that [premise], it follows that [conclusion].
[Premise], which is why [conclusion].

Worked Examples (Including Tricky Ones)

Worked Example 1: Straightforward Indicators

Passage: “Because the printer is out of ink, we can’t print the tickets. Therefore, we should show the QR codes on our phones.”

Indicators: Because, Therefore
Premise candidate: “The printer is out of ink.”
Intermediate claim: “We can’t print the tickets.” (can function as a supported claim and also support the final conclusion)
Conclusion candidate: “We should show the QR codes on our phones.”

Paraphrase check: “The printer is out of ink, so we can’t print the tickets. We can’t print the tickets, so we should show the QR codes on our phones.”

Worked Example 2: “So” as a Transition (Not a Conclusion)

Passage: “So, I opened the email and saw the schedule.”

Indicator-looking word: So
Support test: Is anything being offered as a reason to accept a claim? No; it’s narrative sequencing.
Result: Do not force a premise–conclusion structure here.

Worked Example 3: “Since” as Time vs Reason

Passage A: “Since 2010, the neighborhood has added three new schools.”

Since indicates time (“from 2010 until now”), not support.
No argument structure is signaled by since here.

Passage B: “Since the neighborhood added three new schools, traffic is heavier in the mornings.”

Since likely indicates a reason.
Premise candidate: “The neighborhood added three new schools.”
Conclusion candidate: “Traffic is heavier in the mornings.”

Paraphrase check: “The neighborhood added three new schools. Therefore, traffic is heavier in the mornings.”

Exercises: Spot the Indicators, Then Verify by Paraphrasing

Instructions for each item:

(A) Highlight any indicator words.
(B) Decide whether they function as premise/conclusion signals or not.
(C) If it is an argument, paraphrase it in the form: [Premise]. Therefore, [Conclusion].

Exercise Set 1: Identify and Label

“The meeting starts in five minutes, so let’s head to the conference room now.”
“Since 2010, our team has used the same software.”
“We should bring an umbrella because the forecast shows rain this afternoon.”
“The device is overheating, as shown by the temperature warning light.”
“So, you’re saying you never received the package?”
“Given that the instructions are unclear, the errors are understandable.”
“The museum is closed on Mondays; hence we can’t visit today.”
“I’ve been jogging daily since last spring.”

Exercise Set 2: Mixed Indicators (Some Are Red Herrings)

“Because you asked, here’s the file.”
“The sample size is small; therefore the results should be treated cautiously.”
“Thus far, the project is on schedule.”
“The claim is doubtful, since no independent source confirms it.”
“That’s why the screen looks dim: the brightness setting is low.”

Answer Key with Paraphrase Checks

Use these to self-check after attempting the exercises.

Exercise Set 1

Indicator: so (likely conclusion signal). Paraphrase: “The meeting starts in five minutes. Therefore, we should head to the conference room now.”
Indicator-looking word: Since (time use). Not an argument; no paraphrase needed.
Indicator: because (premise signal). Paraphrase: “The forecast shows rain this afternoon. Therefore, we should bring an umbrella.”
Indicator: as shown by (premise signal). Paraphrase: “The temperature warning light is on. Therefore, the device is overheating.”
Indicator-looking word: So (conversation framing). Not an argument; it introduces a question.
Indicator: Given that (premise signal). Paraphrase: “The instructions are unclear. Therefore, the errors are understandable.”
Indicator: hence (conclusion signal). Paraphrase: “The museum is closed on Mondays. Therefore, we can’t visit today.”
Indicator-looking word: since (time use). Not an argument; it reports duration.

Exercise Set 2

Indicator: Because, but it functions as “in response to your request,” not as support for a claim. Usually not an argument.
Indicator: therefore (conclusion signal). Paraphrase: “The sample size is small. Therefore, the results should be treated cautiously.”
Indicator-looking word: Thus in “thus far” is an idiom meaning “up to now,” not a conclusion indicator. Not an argument.
Indicator: since (reason use). Paraphrase: “No independent source confirms the claim. Therefore, the claim is doubtful.”
Indicator: That’s why (often conclusion-like), but here it introduces an explanation of an observed fact. You can still test it as an argument: Premise: “The brightness setting is low.” Conclusion: “The screen looks dim.” Paraphrase: “The brightness setting is low. Therefore, the screen looks dim.” If the speaker’s goal is to support the conclusion rather than merely explain, treat it as an argument; otherwise treat it as explanation. The support test decides.

Now answer the exercise about the content:

When you see a potential indicator word like "so" or "since" in a sentence, what should you do to decide whether it actually signals an argument?

You are right! Congratulations, now go to the next page

You missed! Try again.

Indicator words are clues, not guarantees. Verify by asking whether a proposed premise is offered to support a proposed conclusion (support test) and by paraphrasing into a clear structure like “Premise. Therefore, Conclusion.”