–1929: Overseas Expansion, Progressive Reform, and Cultural Conflict

From the Spanish-American War to New U.S. Territories (1898–1902)

In 1898 the United States fought Spain in a short war that reshaped U.S. power overseas. The conflict grew from long-running Cuban independence struggles, sensationalized reporting, and U.S. strategic and commercial interests in the Caribbean and Pacific. The result was not only military victory but a new question: would the United States become an overseas empire, and if so, what would that mean for citizenship and constitutional rights?

What the U.S. gained and why it mattered

• Puerto Rico: Became a U.S. possession after 1898, placing millions under U.S. rule without statehood.
• Guam: A strategic naval coaling and communications point in the Pacific.
• The Philippines: The largest and most contested acquisition; U.S. rule sparked a major war against Filipino independence forces (1899–1902).
• Cuba: Formally independent but heavily constrained by U.S. influence; U.S. interventions and base rights reflected a protectorate-like relationship.
• Hawaiʻi: Annexed in 1898 (after an earlier overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy), becoming a key Pacific hub and later a territory.

These acquisitions forced Americans to confront a practical problem: the U.S. Constitution had been designed for a republic of states and territories expected to become states. Overseas possessions did not fit that model.

Debates over empire: anti-imperialism vs. expansion

Supporters of expansion argued that overseas bases and markets would strengthen national security and economic growth. Critics (often called anti-imperialists) argued that ruling distant peoples without their consent contradicted republican ideals and risked entangling the U.S. in permanent military governance. The debate was not only moral; it was constitutional: could the U.S. hold colonies indefinitely?

Empire, Citizenship, and Constitutional Rights in New Regions

The Insular Cases and the idea of “unincorporated territories”

A series of Supreme Court decisions in the early 1900s (often grouped as the Insular Cases) created a framework that distinguished between territories on a path to statehood and territories held without that promise. The Court developed the concept of unincorporated territories, where only “fundamental” constitutional protections were guaranteed, while other rights could be limited by Congress.

Concept to learn: Constitutional rights did not automatically apply in full to all people under U.S. control. This created a flexible legal architecture for empire: the U.S. could govern territories while limiting political participation and certain constitutional guarantees.

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Citizenship and political status: different rules for different places

Across the new possessions, political status varied, and it changed over time. Puerto Ricans, for example, were placed under U.S. civil government with Congress retaining broad authority; later, statutory U.S. citizenship was granted (without statehood). In the Philippines, U.S. rule was justified as “tutelage” toward self-government, but sovereignty remained with the U.S. until independence decades later. In Hawaiʻi, annexation and territorial status moved it closer to the statehood model, though Native Hawaiian political power had already been undermined by the earlier overthrow and land/political restructuring.

Step-by-step: how to analyze a rights-and-status dispute in a U.S. territory

1. Identify the territory’s legal category: state, incorporated territory, unincorporated territory, or protectorate-like relationship.
2. Ask who holds sovereignty: local electorate, Congress, or a mix through appointed officials.
3. Check the citizenship status: citizen, national, or another statutory category; note whether citizenship is constitutional (14th Amendment) or statutory (by Congress).
4. List which rights are practically enforceable: jury trials, voting for federal offices, representation in Congress, and due process protections.
5. Connect law to lived experience: taxation, labor policy, language schooling, land ownership, and policing often reveal how “partial rights” function day to day.

The Progressive Era: Reforming Cities, Workplaces, and Democracy (c. 1900–1917)

Progressivism was not a single movement but a broad set of reform efforts responding to rapid urban growth, industrial accidents, political corruption, and public health crises. Reformers used government power more aggressively than in the late 1800s, but reforms often excluded or harmed marginalized groups, especially in the South and in immigrant communities targeted by “Americanization” campaigns.

City reform: fighting corruption and improving services

Urban political machines provided jobs and aid but also relied on patronage and graft. Progressives pushed for professionalized city management and more efficient services.

• Commission and city-manager systems: replaced ward-based patronage with centralized administration.
• Housing and sanitation codes: targeted overcrowded tenements, waste removal, and clean water.
• Settlement houses: community centers that offered childcare, language classes, and health services; they also shaped reform agendas.

Workplace reform: safety, wages, and child labor

Industrial disasters and investigative journalism helped build support for regulation. States and the federal government began to set rules for working conditions, though enforcement varied widely.

• Factory safety standards: fire exits, building codes, and inspections expanded after highly publicized tragedies.
• Workers’ compensation: shifted the cost of workplace injuries toward employers and insurance systems.
• Limits on child labor: reformers pushed restrictions, though national solutions faced legal and political resistance for years.

Public health: making health a government responsibility

Progressives treated disease and sanitation as public problems requiring coordinated action.

• Clean water and sewage systems: reduced waterborne disease.
• Food and drug regulation: federal oversight expanded to curb adulteration and misleading labeling.
• Vaccination and disease surveillance: local health departments tracked outbreaks, sometimes clashing with civil liberties and community distrust.

Antitrust and regulation: restraining corporate power

Progressives disagreed on whether to break up big firms or regulate them, but they shared the belief that unchecked corporate power threatened democracy and fair competition.

• Antitrust enforcement: increased against monopolistic practices, though outcomes depended on courts and political will.
• Regulatory commissions: expanded oversight of railroads, utilities, and later other sectors, aiming for predictable rules rather than constant litigation.

Voting practices: expanding participation while enabling exclusion

Progressives promoted reforms intended to weaken party bosses and increase “direct democracy,” but these changes sometimes reduced immigrant influence and did not dismantle racial disfranchisement.

• Direct primaries: shifted candidate selection from party leaders to voters.
• Initiative, referendum, recall: allowed voters to propose laws, approve/reject legislation, or remove officials.
• Secret ballot and registration rules: reduced coercion but could also suppress turnout among the poor and recent immigrants.

Exclusions to notice: In many Southern states, poll taxes, literacy tests, grandfather clauses, and intimidation continued to block Black voting despite constitutional amendments. Progressivism often coexisted with segregation and racial violence.

Women’s Suffrage as Institutional Change—and the Limits of Voting Rights

How suffrage changed institutions

Women’s suffrage was not only a cultural shift; it was an institutional transformation that altered party strategies, policy agendas, and the meaning of citizenship. Western states had expanded women’s voting earlier, and national suffrage culminated in the 19th Amendment (1920), prohibiting vote denial on the basis of sex.

Step-by-step: how a constitutional amendment becomes real political power

1. Formal rule change: the amendment changes the legal baseline (sex cannot be used to deny voting).
2. Registration access: local rules determine whether new voters can register easily or face barriers.
3. Party mobilization: parties decide whether to recruit, educate, and court new voters.
4. Policy feedback: elected officials respond to new constituencies (or attempt to blunt their influence).
5. Enforcement and litigation: courts and federal/state authorities determine whether violations are punished.

Continuing limits after 1920

The 19th Amendment did not eliminate other barriers. Many women—especially Black women in the South—still faced the same disfranchisement tools used against Black men. In addition, Native Americans and many Asian immigrants faced citizenship restrictions that limited voting access in many places. Suffrage expanded the electorate, but it did not automatically produce equal voting rights.

World War I and the Home Front: Propaganda, Surveillance, and Dissent (1917–1919)

U.S. entry into World War I triggered rapid federal expansion: mobilizing troops and industry, managing public opinion, and policing dissent. The home front became a testing ground for how far the government could go in shaping speech and loyalty during wartime.

Propaganda and “Americanization”

The federal government promoted unity through coordinated messaging, posters, films, speeches, and volunteer campaigns. These efforts encouraged bond purchases and enlistment, but they also fueled suspicion toward immigrants and dissenters. German language instruction and cultural expression were restricted in some communities, and public pressure sometimes turned into harassment or violence.

Surveillance and restrictions on dissent

Wartime laws and enforcement targeted speech deemed disloyal or obstructive to the war effort. Federal agencies monitored activists, labor organizers, and antiwar groups. Courts often upheld restrictions, narrowing the space for public criticism during the emergency.

Practical analysis tool: When evaluating a wartime civil-liberties controversy, separate (1) the government’s stated goal (security, recruitment, production) from (2) the methods used (censorship, arrests, deportations, intimidation) and (3) the long-term precedent (what remains after the war ends).

Labor, migration, and social strain

War production increased demand for labor, accelerating internal migration and intensifying competition for housing and jobs in many cities. Tensions contributed to strikes and racial violence in several places. The war also strengthened federal coordination with industry, shaping expectations that Washington could manage the economy in crises.

The 1920s: Consumer Culture, Cultural Conflict, and New Boundaries

Consumer culture and mass media

The 1920s saw expanding mass production and advertising, with new consumer goods marketed as symbols of modern life. Installment buying (credit) made products more accessible but increased household vulnerability to downturns.

• Automobiles: reshaped commuting, dating, leisure, and local business patterns.
• Radio and movies: created shared national culture and celebrity influence.
• Advertising: linked identity to consumption, encouraging constant upgrading.

The Harlem Renaissance: art, politics, and self-definition

In Harlem and other urban centers, Black writers, musicians, and artists produced influential work that challenged stereotypes and asserted cultural autonomy. The movement was not only artistic; it was political in its insistence on dignity, modernity, and the right to define Black life beyond white expectations. At the same time, Black artists often navigated unequal access to publishers, patrons, and venues.

Immigration restriction and the redefinition of belonging

After the war, the U.S. adopted stricter immigration policies that favored some national origins over others and sharply limited arrivals from parts of Europe and nearly all of Asia. These laws reflected fears about labor competition, radical politics, and racialized ideas of national identity.

Concept to learn: Immigration policy became a tool for defining who could join the nation, not just who could enter the labor market.

Prohibition: law, enforcement, and unintended consequences

The 18th Amendment and the Volstead Act attempted to reduce alcohol consumption by banning production and sale of intoxicating beverages. Enforcement proved uneven and politically contentious.

• Step 1: Legal ban created a large illegal market.
• Step 2: Enforcement gaps (limited resources, local resistance, corruption) allowed bootlegging to flourish.
• Step 3: Organized crime growth expanded around distribution networks.
• Step 4: Public legitimacy crisis emerged as ordinary people violated the law and selective enforcement became visible.

Renewed Ku Klux Klan activity

The 1920s Klan expanded beyond its earlier regional base, promoting white Protestant nationalism and targeting Black Americans, immigrants, Catholics, Jews, and others. It used intimidation, violence, and political organizing to influence local and state governments. Its growth illustrates how mass politics could mobilize fear and prejudice alongside modern advertising and membership drives.

Economic Vulnerabilities Leading Toward the Great Depression

Despite visible prosperity, the economy contained structural weaknesses that made it fragile by the late 1920s.

• Unequal income distribution: many families lacked savings, limiting consumer demand when wages stagnated.
• Overreliance on credit: installment buying and margin investing increased exposure to shocks.
• Speculation in financial markets: rising stock prices encouraged risky borrowing and inflated valuations.
• Farm sector distress: agricultural prices and incomes struggled for much of the decade, creating rural debt and bank instability.
• Weak banking safeguards: many banks were small and vulnerable to runs, with limited federal protections.
• Overproduction risks: industries could outpace sustainable demand, leading to layoffs and cascading declines.

By 1929, these vulnerabilities meant that a sharp disruption—especially one tied to credit and confidence—could spread quickly from finance to factories, farms, and households.